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Abstract
This article reviews various factors
related to increasing body size and its impact on chronic disease and
longevity. The health and environmental impacts
of high birthweight, rapid growth, early maturation, early adiposity and
adult obesity are also covered. Additionally, the biological mechanisms that
produce the differences in longevity between tall and short people are identified
and explained.
Introduction
Over ten years ago, we* presented little-known findings on human body size
in an article entitled, "How Human Size Affects Longevity and Mortality
from Degenerative Diseases" in this publication.1 This article is an
update to the research findings discussed in that article. The hypothesis
and research findings we presented at that time indicated that larger body
size, both height and weight, resulted in increased mortality from early
onset of aging and from all diseases, particularly degenerative diseases.
Since then, 15 papers have been published in various scientific and medical
journals supporting our findings that relate the general increase in linear
body size with increased obesity, cancer, cardiovascular disease (CVD), diabetes,
and decreased longevity. These recent and older findings are presented in
the new book by Thomas Samaras, Human Body Size
and the Laws of Scaling,2
and are summarized here. Complete references to all researchers mentioned
in this paper are not given due to space limitations. However, the original
sources are available from the new book, which contains over 1000 references
to peer-reviewed papers, reports, and books.2
Our basic premise regarding increased height and girth and increased mortality
has not changed; however, we decided to present this article as a less-technical
follow-up to our original highly technical article. In fact, ten years of research
has added more support to our earlier conclusions that increasing body size,
both height and weight, poses a threat to our health and survival on this planet
equal to and as serious as the impact of global warming. Increasing body size
was the deciding factor leading to the demise of the dinosaurs, and today,
we are seeing the equivalent of human dinosaurs who are eating and growing
themselves into extinction.
The explosion of increased height and body size experienced by the last few
generations is not a sign of good health or genetic improvement. It is, instead,
a negative manifestation of an inadvertent environmental experiment gone horribly
wrong, resulting from the chemical pollution of our food supply and the over-consumption
of calories and protein, in particular, growth hormone-contaminated dairy and
beef protein. These developments were fostered not by health or science but
by corporate and political greed. The Western corporate culture, the US and
some newly industrialized (and Westernized) cultures, such as those in China
and India, see increasing height as a positive factor. It is not – particularly
when coupled with the high incidence of obesity that usually accompanies this
increase.
Europeans have been growing taller and heavier for about 150 to 200 years,
and the Dutch are now the tallest people in the world with the average young
male standing over six feet, one inches. Along with increasing height, we have
seen body weight increase dramatically, resulting in an epidemic of overweight
and obese people. Since the 1950s, the so-called secular trend in body size
has also spread to Asia with the Japanese, Chinese, South Koreans, etc. exhibiting
an even faster growth rate in height than Europeans have seen. Obesity and
many Western-type diseases are also becoming a problem for this part of the
world.
Popular belief is that our abundant and varied diet has produced taller, bigger,
and healthier people. It certainly can't be disputed that the average
life expectancy is sharply higher in developed nations throughout the world.
However, the predominant reasons for the improved health and longevity are
improved sanitation, followed by antibiotics, immunization, drugs, improved
surgical and medical skills, and advanced diagnostic medical technology. These
developments, and not better diet, are the primary causes of improved life
expectancy in individuals of all sizes. We therefore should give our primary
gratitude to the sanitation industry rather than the medical industry for our
increased longevity! These aforementioned improvements have, until recently,
largely neutralized the ill effects of overnutrition and larger taller bodies.
Based on his research in China, nutritional biochemist T.C. Campbell believes
that even small amounts of animal food increase chronic disease mortality.3
The recommended diet of low protein and calories from primarily plant foods
would improve our health and also result in shorter stature and leaner bodies.
Increased height and weight used to be considered a sign of wealth by early
Western societies. Since the wealthier classes had greater access to food and
increased protein, they grew taller and heavier. However, today, people are
taller but not healthier, and the increased height is the result of contaminants
in our food supply and the over-consumption of calories and dairy proteins,
particularly milk, which is full of growth hormones.
Many health experts, ignorant of research indicating otherwise, also erroneously
believe that increasing height reflects better health and well-being. If one
only looks at surface data, that conclusion may seem valid. For example, the
literature often reports that taller people live longer.2(p.95) Yes taller
people are living longer; however, that is primarily because people who are
taller generally live in developed countries that offer their citizens abundant
nutrition, excellent medical care, control of infections, and a relatively
easy physical life. However, Deheeger2(p.149) and others observed that during
the last 30 years, increasing growth patterns have increased chronic disease
due to rapid growth, increased leg length, early sexual maturation, increased
abdominal fat, and increased obesity. These researchers have also noted that
the growing trend in obesity has paralleled increasing height; that is, developed
countries are both taller and fatter compared to traditional or developing
societies. Other researchers, such as Freedman, Chen, and Campbell and Singh,
Singhal, Kappagoda, and Rollo have noted that excess nutrition, particularly
animal protein, not only promotes increased height but also early sexual maturation,
early adiposity rebound, obesity, and chronic disease.2(p.57,69,164-166)
Hoppe and Ziegler2(p.3) reported that increasing height is due to high protein
and energy intake. While protein is an essential nutrient, researchers, such
Crysohooou, have found that a high intake of red meat and meat products correlates
with increased fibrinogen, Apo (a), and C-reactive protein – all associated
with increased CVD risk.2(p.176) In addition, increased levels of protein are
related to increased concentrations of growth hormones, insulin-like growth
factor-1 (IGF-1), and insulin. Unfortunately, these are all related to reduced
longevity (Parr, Walford, and Bartke).2(p.167,178,226) Thus, on the positive
side, we have increased average life expectancy by about 30 years since 1900
through reduced infant and maternal mortality, primarily due to improved sanitation,
antibiotics, and advanced medical practices, but on the negative side, we have
increased a host of chronic diseases to epidemic levels. While one can argue
that these chronic diseases are the result of living longer, the fact is that
in the early 1900s, if one reached 50 years of age, he or she could expect
to reach 70 years or more. In addition, most of the world's elderly people
live in the developing countries. Many people in the developing world experience
good longevity if they can survive early malnutrition, HIV and other infections,
and traumas. In fact, Trowell and Burkitt reported that there was no evidence
of Western diseases in developing countries 50 years ago. More recently, Lindeberg
and associates2(p.168) studied the natives of an island called Kitava and found
no evidence of CVD in either males or females. However, over-consumption of
protein and calories that has contributed to larger but unhealthier populations
is clearly evident in many developing countries. For example, due to the Westernization
of countries such as South Korea and India, CVD, diabetes, and certain cancers
have increased from 1000% to over 2000%, along with the increasing height and
weight of their populations.2(p.85,114)
In Western societies such as the US, the current generation will experience
a decrease in longevity, and it is expected that their lifespan will be ten
years shorter than the current average. If this trend continues unabated, we
will see the first serious decline in longevity occur, which will reverse a
trend of increased longevity of each succeeding generation that has existed
since the time of the Romans.
Besides our excessive intake of food, particularly protein and processed products,
another problem results from our bias favoring taller height. With rapid advances
in genetic engineering, it won't be long before parents will be able
to create taller offspring by having their physicians transfer genes for tallness
to embryos in mothers desiring taller children. If this should occur, will
these taller children desire the same procedure for their offspring? Based
on our culture, it is reasonable to assume that each generation would want
their children to be somewhat taller than the current average height.
We feel that this irrational desire for and emphasis on taller height is purely
cosmetic and has no logical benefit for the survival of the human race. In
fact, Francis Galton, a British scientist, reported many years ago that tall
soldiers are at least 30% more likely to be killed in combat.4 More recently,
Sarna reported that taller basketball players who fought in World War II had
higher mortality compared to shorter athletes who fought.2(p.54) This was probably
due to the larger body size making a better target during battle conditions.
In addition, larger soldiers, who might be slower and not able to crouch down
as low as their shorter counterparts, were at a disadvantage. Although larger
stature may have at one time been a benefit in battles that required hand-to-hand
combat, in today's mechanized warfare environment, taller stature holds
no benefit other than the possible advantage of intimidation over a smaller
enemy. However, as was witnessed during the Vietnam War, the greater size of
the American soldiers was a disadvantage against a smaller, more agile enemy
who could hide more easily and survive on fewer supplies and lower food and
water rations.
We must remember that, until recently, the majority of populations of this
planet were of short stature. The average height of a Greek and Macedonian
soldier was approximately five feet (based on information from The Treasures
Of Alexander Museum exhibit). (Macedonia is now split between the former Yugoslavia
and the current northern part of Greece.) King Phillip of Macedonia, father
of Alexander the Great, was 4'9" tall (established by forensic
evidence from his bones and armor) and Alexander was less than five feet tall.
The height of the average Roman soldier was also approximately five feet. Julius
Caesar, at 5'7", was very tall compared to his soldiers. Napoleon
who is always used as an example of the overreaching of a short individual,
was not short for his time; he was approximately 5'6", which was
taller than the average height of French soldiers. It is interesting to note
that Napoleon looked much taller in earlier paintings as a youthful general
than as Emperor, after he had become obese, weighing approximately 200 lbs,
which made him appear shorter. He also surrounded himself with the members
of his elite guard, who were usually six feet or taller, making him appear
short.
Taller stature, although valued in the boardrooms in big business and American
presidential campaigns (an example of heightism), is primarily a cosmetically
attractive feature and prior to the Westernization of foreign cultures was
not necessarily one that was valued or considered important. Although physical
stature and cosmetic appeal may still be an important factor in American and
British politics, it does not seem important in other countries, where societies
value competence and intelligence over height.
Taller stature, although currently valued for its cosmetic attraction, negatively
impacts the environment and creates height bias, such as that currently in
vogue in China. Height bias, or heightism, which has particularly affected
males, has predominated in Western corporate culture. Statistics show that
taller workers make more money and get more promotions than their shorter counterparts.
This usually results in individuals being illogically promoted to the top,
not because of their competence but because of their cosmetic appeal. Ironically,
if one researches the physical stature of the founders of many of the corporations
that foster this bias, we find that individuals of shorter than average height
founded many of the corporations. Examples of successful entrepreneurs include
Andrew Carnegie and Hebert Haft (5'), David Murdock and Armand Hammer
(5'5"), Malcolm Forbes (5'4"), and Aristotle Onassis
(5'5"). Additionally, many current leaders of Eastern and Western
European nations are of shorter stature, as are the current leaders of China.
If wars were still decided as they were in ancient times by the physical prowess
and fighting ability of its leaders, Mr. Putin, the current leader of Russia,
at 5'7", being in athletic physical condition and holding a black
belt in judo, would quickly dispatch Mr. Bush (6'0") of the US
and most of the other current world leaders, shorter and taller than himself.
The Founder of Akido, Morihei Ueshiba, at barely five feet tall, in one demonstration
easily dispatched simultaneous multiple opponents who ranged from 5'10" to
6'5", throwing them around the room as if they were rag dolls.18
This feat was accomplished when he was close to 80 years old. Dr. Desnoes' only
defeat in competitive judo was at the hands of an Italian opponent who was
5'2".
The question arises: if we are becoming obsessed with increasing body size
as a cosmetically desirable trait, why is taller height valued over larger
girth, which is currently seen as a negative in Western corporate and political
circles? Obese individuals, regardless of height, earn less than their counterparts
and are promoted less often. This is ironic since the obese individuals are
usually taller than their thinner counterparts, due to excessive protein intake
and early overfeeding. The fixation on tallness over girth was not always the
case, Large girth and obesity, not tallness, was valued in political and corporate
culture in Western societies from the 1800s to the time of the great depression
in the 1930s. During the nineteenth and early twentieth centuries, a large
distended belly and large girth were signs of wealth and power. Napoleon's
obesity, with protruding belly, was seen as a sign of success and power. A
large belly and thick limbs were also used to indicate wealth and power in
ancient Egyptian hieroglyphics.
As people progressively increase in height and weight, it is imperative that
we evaluate the ramifications of this trend. The following material highlights
some possible disastrous ecological and physical ramifications of valuing and
promoting a worldwide increase in human body size.
In 1978, the first evaluation of the impact of human size on longevity suggested
that shorter, lighter athletes and shorter celebrities lived longer than their
larger counterparts.5 In 1990, an Ohio study of 1679 deceased men and women
supported these findings.6 A third study of 373 deceased veterans and 3281
deceased baseball players was published in 1992 and confirmed previous findings.2(p.96,97,124)
Mortality data from the World Health Organization (WHO) and National Institute
of Occupational Safety and Health indicate that shorter or smaller bodies have
lower coronary heart disease (CHD) and all-cause death rates. In addition,
data from France and the American Cancer Society indicates greater longevity
for shorter or smaller people of both sexes.1 A large Chinese study also indicated
that larger body size is more susceptible to degenerative diseases.8 Ironically,
this study is contrary to the growing illogical cultural bias in China against
individuals of short stature. In a recent news report, a 5'1" woman
was denied a job in China because of her short stature. Historically, shorter
females in the West have been exempt from height bias; ironically, that does
not seem to be the case in China and may portend a future trend towards height
bias against females in the West.
The conclusions based on the preceding findings are that longevity benefits
and reduced death rates from chronic disease are derived from smaller stature
or size when not due to malnutrition or diseases in utero or during childhood.
It is important to note, however, that while smaller size appears to increase
longevity, it is only one factor out of many that determine how long an individual
will live.
The Obesity Epidemic
and its Relation to Birthweight and Increased Growth Rates
In our previous article, we had discussed the entropy theory of aging,9 which
predicts that increasing mass lowers life span and hypothesizes that aging
is the result of increasing disorder within the body. This movement towards
disorder or increased entropy is related to time, the mass of the body, its
energy content, and the nature of the mass and energy transactions. The entropy,
S, of a system at a point in time is expressed as log g (N, U), where g = number
of possible states the system can have. The number of states, g, is a function
of N, the number of cells (mass), and U, the energy of the system, which is
a daily average of total energy consumption. Thus, it follows from this formula
that the ideal configuration for systems of the same design is one that represents
the smallest combination of mass and body energy needs. Of course, the system
design, interactions with the environment, and types of energy transactions
are also very important to the aging process. While this is a macroscopic theory
that deals with the system as a whole, the opportunity for increased microscopic
disorder would appear to result simply from the greater number of cells and
energy in a larger body when other conditions are equal.
Note that the entropy theory does not require that energy consumption per kilogram
(kg) of body weight be low for improved longevity. While low expenditure of
energy per kilogram of body weight appears to be desirable for maximum longevity,
the theory does not indicate it is necessary as long as the total average energy
used by the system is less. Thus, the theory does not conflict with Masoro's10
observations that the intake of calories per gram of lean body mass is about
the same for smaller, long-lived, food-restricted rats as for larger, short-lived
rats fed ad libitum. Research since our 1996 paper continues to support the
relevance of the entropy theory.
The traditional belief is that a heavier baby is a healthier baby, and a number
of studies show that infant mortality declines with increasing birthweight
(BW). However, Ulizzi and associates found no trend in infant mortality for
a BW range of 2500 to 4500 g in a study involving almost two million Italian
subjects.2(p.156) In addition, a study by Vangen and associates found that
Vietnamese born in Norway had the lowest BW and the lowest infant mortality.11
However, overall, they found no relation between BW and perinatal mortality.
A number of problems exist with increasing BW. For example, Andersson and associates
reported that adult cancer doubles with increasing BW from 2745 to 4241 g.2(p.151)
It is also well established that a higher BW leads to greater height, weight,
and BMI in childhood, adolescence, and adulthood.2(p.101,150) Parsons and others
have also noted that rapid increase in height is correlated with obesity in
young adulthood.2(p.165) In addition, Monteiro found rapid gain in height and
weight during the first 42 months following birth correlate with future overweight
or obesity.2(p.150) Heude and Freedman have associated at least part of today's
obesity epidemic to overfeeding infants and to rapid growth rates.2(p164) Early
adiposity rebound and early puberty, which are related to overnutrition and
rapid increase in height and weight, are also predictors of future overweight,
obesity, insulin resistance, cancer, diabetes, and CVD.2(p.161)
Body Size and Longevity
It is common to read that taller people live longer or have lower overall mortality
than shorter ones.2(p.95) There are certainly a number of studies that have
found taller people have lower mortality than shorter people, such as Langenberg
and Song.2(p.78,161) However, most of these studies have found only a small
increase in mortality of ten percent to 30%. In addition, these findings
are based on relatively modest numbers of deaths – sometimes less than
100. In contrast, studies showing shorter people have lower mortality are
based on both small and large populations. Some studies involved over a million
deaths. Some examples of studies showing shorter people have lower mortality
or longer longevity are identified below:
Holzenberger and associates tracked 1.3 million Spanish military recruits
for 70 years and found a highly significant correlation r = -.53 (p < .001)
between height and survival based on over one million deaths.2(p.98) In California,
Wild and associates found that Whites and Blacks (tallest ethnic groups) had
twice the mortality of the Chinese and Japanese (shortest ethnic groups). Other
studies involving elderly Hawaiian Japanese males indicated that mortality
increased with height. A small Swedish study found that the longevity of elderly
men and women declined at the rate of .52 y/cm of greater height (Krakauer,
personal communication, July 24, 2002). This finding exactly matched the mean
value of an earlier 1999 study.2(p.97)
Chan and associates12 also studied centenarians and identified short height
and low body weight as possible key factors in explaining their great longevity.
In addition, Okinawans have the greatest percentage of centenarians in the
world, and males average 4'10" and females < 4'7".
Of course, these people probably shrunk a few inches with age, but they were
still short by Western standards, even in their youth.2(p.99)
Another study compared European men and women in terms of their life expectancy
and difference in height. The men averaged eight percent taller than women
and had a 7.9% lower life expectancy. Rollo, Miller, and Stindl have reported
that differences in male-female longevity are related to differences in height
or body weight in humans and animals.2(p.169)
Shorter stature among females is a result of estrogen, which closes the epipyses
of the long bones. Males who are fed high soy-based diets, which are high in
estrogen, or who are exposed to high levels of environmental estrogens, experience
premature closure of the epipyses and shorter stature. Shorter stature is also
produced by the use of anabolic steroids by young men who have not reached
full height (men can continue to grow until age 30, although most men reach
maximum stature by age 22). Anabolic steroids or excessive intake of testosterone
aromatize into estrogen and may increase a man's estrogen level by 200%,
which will result in stunted growth and shorter stature.
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