Introduction

Consumers around the globe are concerned about PFAS. Over 4,700 PFAS chemicals are in widespread use. Some get cleared out of the body via urine in a matter of days, but others with a longer molecular structure can remain in the body for years.¹ 

PFAS are man-made chemicals that have been around since the 1940s. They are referred to as per- and polyfluoroalkyl substances and because of their durability are called The Forever Chemicals. PFAS are a class of synthetic chemicals that contain carbon-fluorine bonds, which are among the strongest in organic chemistry. This unique structure makes PFAS highly resistant to degradation, they are long-lasting chemicals which persist ‘forever’ in the environment and the human body. 

Because of their durability, PFAS are widely used; they break down very slowly over time. According to the US Environmental Protection Agency (EPA) and the US Agency for Toxic Substances and Disease Registry (ATSDR), their widespread use and their persistence in the environment is the reason many PFAS are now found in the blood of people and animals all over the world. PFAS are present at low levels in a variety of food products, in water, air, fish, and soil at locations across the nation and the globe.

Common Uses

Due to their water- and grease-resistant properties, PFAS are used in a wide range of household products, including-

• Waterproof fabrics (e.g., outdoor gear, carpets) and waterproofing sprays
• Non-stick cookware (e.g., Teflon frying pans) baking paper 
• Food packaging (e.g., grease-resistant paper)

PFAS are used in firefighting foams, cosmetics such as makeup or dental – these and many other products can contain certain PFAS.

Water Science and Technology

Subgroups of PFAS, the perfluorooctanoic acid (PFOA) and perfluorooctane sulfonic acid (PFOS), have been widely researched. They are well known and widely used and have been detected in surface water, seawater, groundwater, and tap water in many locations around the world.

Their presence in drinking water supplies has caused serious problems especially at intake locations close to PFAS manufacturing facilities, wastewater treatment plants (WWTPs), and sites where PFAS-containing firefighting foam was regularly used. Although monitoring is increasing, knowledge on the removal of these chemicals is low. Carbon adsorption and ion exchange are currently used treatment technologies for PFAS removal in waste water treatment plants. Other pioneering treatment technologies, such as electrooxidation, ultrasound, and plasma have been reported for PFAS degradation to improve wastewater streams, ground water and drinking water supplies. It was also observed that the subgroup of PFAS, the PFOS, accumulated in high amounts (400 ng/g) in sludge.² 

Research confirms that sludge removes PFAS and their chemical subgroups primarily by sorption.³ Apparently, conventional treatment processes, such as biological activated sludge, cannot provide efficient removal and/or degradation of PFAS, since they are resistant to biodegradation. It seems that the existing treatment options for PFAS in water are inadequate in number as compared to other pollutants.⁴ 

PFAS and Human Health

PFAS are increasingly detected as environmental pollutants, contaminating groundwater, surface water, soil, wildlife, and food. Studies have focused on linking these chemicals to certain adverse health effects, including cancer, hormonal disruptions and reproductive issues. Other health effects potentially associated with PFAS exposure include increases in cholesterol levels, decreases in birth weight, lower antibody response to vaccines, kidney and testicular cancer, pregnancy-induced hypertension, preeclampsia, and changes in liver enzymes.

Communities around the United States have been concerned about possible health effects from PFAS exposure. Due to this growing health concern, regulatory bodies like the EPA are taking steps to address PFAS contamination. This includes proposals for restricting the production and use of these forever chemicals and guidelines for monitoring and reducing PFAS in various products and environments. 

Human Biomonitoring

Testing for PFAS in humans is a specialized process that involves several steps. It determines the levels of these chemicals in the body, providing insights into exposure and potential health risks. The CDC now encourages healthcare providers to discuss with patients potential exposure to PFAS and to determine if blood testing would be beneficial. This guidance provides information to help clinicians weigh the benefits and risks of PFAS blood testing based on the patient’s exposure.

The CDC’s updated guidance states that “testing may help some individuals understand if they are exposed to certain PFAS and help guide exposure reduction.” The CDC encourages blood testing for individuals at high risk of elevated exposure to PFAS to help monitor health and reduce exposure. PFAS diagnostic is a significant innovation.⁵ 

Treatment Options

Diagnosing a PFAS exposure is one thing, treatment is another. According to Kiran Patil, Professor of Molecular Systems Biology at Cambridge University, UK “Given the scale of the problem of PFAS ‘forever chemicals,’ particularly their effects on human health, it’s concerning that so little is being done about removing these from our bodies.” 

His colleague Dr. Indra Roux, co-author of their recent groundbreaking study said: “The reality is that PFAS are already in the environment and in our bodies, and we need to try and mitigate their impact on our health now. We haven’t found a way to destroy PFAS, but our findings open the possibility of developing ways to get them out of our bodies where they do the most harm.”⁶ 

Through their diligent work they did find a possible way to protect human health as Dr. Patel states: “We found that certain species of human gut bacteria have a remarkably high capacity to soak up PFAS from their environment at a range of concentrations, and store these in clumps inside their cells. Due to aggregation of PFAS in these clumps, the bacteria themselves seem protected from the toxic effects.”

The scientists identified a family of bacterial species, found naturally in the human gut, that absorb various PFAS molecules from their surroundings.  When nine of these bacterial species were introduced into the guts of mice to ‘humanise’ the mouse microbiome, the bacteria rapidly accumulated PFAS eaten by the mice – which were then excreted in faeces and as the mice were exposed to increasing levels of PFAS, the microbes worked harder, consistently removing the same percentage of the toxic chemicals. Within minutes of exposure, the bacterial species tested soaked up between 25% and 74% of the PFAS.”

According to the researchers, these results are the first evidence that our gut microbiome could play a helpful role in removing toxic PFAS chemicals from our body and while this information is based on animal studies only, the potential that the human microbiome provides a similar protection is promising. The researchers’ further plan is to create probiotic dietary supplements that boost the levels of helpful microbes in our gut, to protect against the toxic effects of PFAS.

There is hope. Beresford-Jones and colleagues developed the Mouse Microbial Genome Collection (MMGC), a compilation of 276 genomes from cultured isolates and 45,218 metagenome-assembled genomes (MAGs) from 1,960 publicly available mouse metagenomes. The MMGC reveals that while only 2.65% of bacterial species are shared between mouse and human, over 80% of annotatable functions are present in both microbiomes. According to the researchers the MMGC enables identification of functionally equivalent taxa in the mouse and human microbiotas.⁷ 

Future Prediction and Development

The global PFAS market was valued at US$1,483.45 million in 2023 and is anticipated to reach US$2,455.76 million by 2030, witnessing a CAGR of 7.34% during the forecast period 2024-2030. However, regulatory developments in both the US and the EU reflect a commitment to restrict the release of persistent PFAS into the environment.

In September 2024, the EPA published science-based water quality concentrations for 10 PFAS that will help states and Tribes protect fish and other aquatic life from these chemicals. But these levels, referred to as water quality criteria and benchmarks, are not regulatory and are not required.⁸ 

The EU has implemented progressive restrictions on the production and use of certain PFAS, in particular perfluorooctane sulfonic acid and its derivatives (PFOS) and perfluorooctanoic acid (PFOA). Many PFAS have been classified as substances of very high concern (SVHC) under the EU REACH Regulation. In 2024, a specific restriction targeted its salts and related substances, implemented restrictions are starting April 2026.

Under discussion is a broader ban on the use of PFAS in consumer products at the European level, yet the goal of the European Chemical Agency (ECHA) to minimize PFAS to protect health and environment remains to be enacted.

Summary

The Forever Chemicals are a threat to the environment and its occupants. Research on toxicity, removal, and degradation of per- and polyfluoroalkyl substances (PFAS) has increased tremendously in recent years and international attempts are made to restrict the production and use of PFAS. Furthermore, possible associations between PFAS exposure and various health effects, and the mechanisms underlying these toxicological effects are better understood. Progress is made in diagnosing and treating exposure, but the most effective way to avoid health and environmental problems remains avoiding these harmful and man-made forever chemicals.

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References

1.Lindell, AE: ‘Human gut bacteria bioaccumulate per- and polyfluoroalkyl substances.’ Nature Microbiology, July 2025. DOI: 10.1038/s41564-025-02032-5.

2. Kunacheva et al. Worldwide surveys of perfluorooctane sulfonate (PFOS) and perfluorooctanoic acid (PFOA) in water environments in recent years. Water Science and Technology 2012,66(12):2764-71.

3. Boiteux et al. Concentrations and patterns of perfluoroalkyl and polyfluoroalkyl substances in a river and three drinking water treatment plants near and far from a major production source, Science of The Total Environment, Volume 583, 2017: 393-400.

4. Sibel Barisci, Rominder Surri. Occurrence and removal of poly/perfluoroalkyl substances (PFAS) in municipal and industrial wastewater treatment plants. Water Sci Technol (2021) 84 (12): 3442–3468.

5. PFAS and your health. ATSDR. November 12, 2024.

6. Gut microbes could protect us from toxic ‘forever chemicals’ | University of Cambridge.

7. Benjamin S. Beresford-Jones et al. The Mouse Gastrointestinal Bacteria Catalogue enables translation between the mouse and human gut microbiotas via functional mapping, Cell Host and Microbe. Volume 30, Issue 1, 2022, Pages 124-138.e8, ISSN 1931-3128, https://doi.org/10.1016/j.chom.2021.12.003.

8. Key EPA Actions to Address PFAS. Last updated July 29,2025.