Beyond Sex, Birth, and Breastfeeding:
Promising Clinical Uses for Oxytocin
by Pushpa Larsen, ND
It’s been called the “hug hormone” the “cuddle chemical” and a “hormone of happiness”, but it’s most commonly known in the popular media as the “hormone of love.”1–3 Oxytocin is an important hormone that is released by hugging and cuddling, but a plethora of recent research is revealing that it may have far broader effects than those we typically associate with this hormone. These effects hold promise for treating some of society’s major health issues: diabetes, obesity, osteoporosis, chronic pain, and heart disease. Oxytocin may also play an important role in the alleviation of migraines, anxiety, posttraumatic stress disorder, autism, erectile function, anorgasmia, vaginal atrophy, reproductive function, maintenance of muscle mass, inflammation, mood and mental disorders, recovery from addiction, and nerve regeneration.
Oxytocin is a peptide hormone made of nine amino acids. It is primarily synthesized in the paraventricular and supraoptic nuclei (PVN and SON) of the hypothalamus. Hypothalamic neurons terminating in the posterior pituitary release oxytocin into circulation. Hypothalamic oxytocin neurons project likewise to the hindbrain. Oxytocin is also produced in peripheral tissues, including the uterus, ovaries, testes, retina, and heart. In humans, oxytocin release in the brain has a diurnal rhythm, peaking around noon.4 Painful stimuli are another trigger for oxytocin release.5 The oxytocin receptor is expressed in a wide range of tissues: cardiac muscle, vascular endothelium, kidney, pancreas, thymus, pain-sensing neurons, adipocytes, prostate, adrenal, and osteoblasts.6,7 Oxytocin is highly conserved, an oxytocinlike peptide being found in all vertebrate species.6
Oxytocin and Pain
According to the American Academy of Pain Medicine, 100 million people in the US suffer from chronic pain. This number is greater than the combined numbers who suffer from diabetes (diagnosed and estimated undiagnosed), heart disease, stroke, and all forms of cancer.8 Patients with chronic pain have significantly lower endogenous oxytocin levels and greater pain sensitivity than healthy controls. Low levels of oxytocin are likely to be associated with greater subjective pain, stress, and depression in women with fibromyalgia. Exogenous oxytocin has improved tolerance to painful stimuli in clinical trials. Other studies have found that oxytocin increased pain thresholds in patients with irritable bowel syndrome and reduced pain in patients with chronic or acute back pain.9
A Chinese study of oxytocin’s efficacy in treating headaches tested three different doses of intranasal oxytocin against placebo in 112 patients. Patients receiving 400 ng of oxytocin had the best response, with 20 of the 28 experiencing complete remission and the remaining eight experiencing partial remission of headache pain. Of those patients receiving 200 ng of oxytocin, 14 had complete remission of pain, 12 had partial remission, and 2 experienced no improvement in their headache pain. This dose-response effect continued to be observed in those receiving 100 ng of oxytocin or placebo (Figure 1).10
One pilot study conducted by an outpatient center for patients with chronic pain demonstrated a 30% to 40% reduction in opioid use and baseline pain in 7 out of 9 participants with the administration of sublingual oxytocin (10 units 2–4 times daily) in combination with sublingual hCG (250–500 units daily). Most patients requested to continue with the regimen after the completion of the study.11 Related research on the use of oxytocin to reduce withdrawal symptoms from alcohol and drugs suggests that oxytocin might be of great benefit in fighting the current epidemic of those addicted to pain medications.12–14
Case Report
A physician client of Meridian Valley Lab called for a clinical consult on Patient A with a history of cluster headaches and migraines 4 or more days a week for the past 30 years. A variety of pharmacological and nonpharmacological treatments had been tried over the years with little relief. A notable result on the patient’s 24-hour urine hormone panel was of oxytocin low out of the reference range. A trial of intranasal oxytocin was suggested, at a starting dose of 20 IU daily. In August 2015, the physician reported that Patient A had experienced only one headache since commencing oxytocin treatment 3 weeks previously. Three months later, the physician reported that, while the patient continued to experience occasional headaches, they were greatly decreased in both frequency and intensity.
Oxytocin, Obesity, and Diabetes
It is well documented that individuals who are overweight or obese have elevated circulating leptin, and leptin resistance is generally understood to play an important part in the pathophysiology of obesity.15 Leptin receptors are found on the oxytocin-synthesizing neurons of the PVN. Leptin-activated oxytocin neurons innervating the hindbrain then downregulate food intake. It has been theorized that because oxytocin is downstream from leptin, oxytocin administration could be used to “bypass” leptin resistance as well as improve body fat mass in those with genetic leptin or leptin-receptor deficiencies. Several animal studies and two human studies would seem to support this hypothesis.16 Interestingly, at least in the animal studies, the resulting weight loss appears to be independent of food intake. Oxytocin receptors are expressed in adipose tissue at levels similar to those found in the breast, uterus, and other tissues traditionally thought to be the targets for oxytocin stimulation. Oxytocin receptor expression on adipocytes also appears to be higher in obese mice than in lean mice. Thus long-term oxytocin administration in lean mice had little effect on feeding behavior and weight beyond the first day. Glucose metabolism and insulin sensitivity in obese mice was also improved with oxytocin administration.
In a study of 20 normal-weight men, 24 units of intranasal oxytocin or placebo was administered after more than 13 hours of fasting and 45 minutes prior to having access to a breakfast buffet. Approximately 2 hours after eating breakfast, participants in the study were presented with a variety of snack foods which they were encouraged to eat at will. Ten days later, the experiment was repeated using placebo or oxytocin. Each participant served as his own control. Quantity of food intake and macronutrient balance during breakfast after fasting did not differ between oxytocin and placebo. Consumption of snacks, particularly chocolate cookies, was decreased on oxytocin vs. placebo. This suggests that exogenous oxytocin can be safely used without fear of abnormally suppressing hunger-driven eating.17
In the second human trial, 20 men and women with a BMI of 30 or higher were randomized to two groups. Nine participants received 24 units of intranasal oxytocin 20 minutes before 3 meals and before sleep. Eleven participants used a placebo saline nasal spray on the same schedule. Participants were asked not to make any changes to diet and exercise habits. At the end of 4 weeks, there was an average weight loss of 10.14 pounds in the oxytocin group, while no therapeutic effect was found in the placebo group. At 8 weeks, the average weight loss in the oxytocin group was 19.62 pounds. There were significant reductions in BMI and waist and hip circumference. The therapeutic effect of oxytocin appeared to be greater in participants with a higher initial BMI.18
James Blevins reports that, as of September 2013, there were “225 completed, ongoing or future investigations in humans [listing] oxytocin in studies of caloric intake, gastric emptying, or obesity.” He also reports that oxytocin “may preferentially inhibit the intake of carbohydrates.”19
As noted above, oxytocin receptors are expressed in many different body tissues. In adipose tissue, oxytocin stimulates fatty acid oxidation and lipolysis, resulting in smaller adipocytes. This increases adiponectin levels and decreases leptin levels, which leads to improved insulin sensitivity and increased glucose uptake in muscle cells. Oxytocin stimulates insulin secretion in the pancreas and appears to play a role in ß-cell regeneration.20
Oxytocin and Osteoporosis
Oxytocin receptors are expressed in both osteoblasts and osteoclasts. Osteoblasts share a common precursor cell with adipocytes. This is seen in postmenopausal osteopenia as the decrease in osteoblasts is balanced by an increase of fat cells in bone marrow.21 Severe osteoporosis also develops in both male and female mice that either do not produce oxytocin or do not express oxytocin receptors.22 Oxytocin administration has been demonstrated in animal studies to reverse osteopenia in animals that had been ovariectomized to simulate menopause.23
A study of postmenopausal women compared 20 women who had severe osteoporosis with 16 healthy controls. Bone mineral density was correlated with oxytocin but no other measured parameters, including age. Women with severe osteoporosis had the lowest levels of oxytocin.24 Lower oxytocin levels, poor trabecular structure, and poor bone strength compared with controls have also been found in amenorrheic young women with anorexia nervosa and amenorrheic young female athletes. In amenorrheic young female athletes, this finding was most pronounced in non-weight-bearing bones.25,26
Oxytocin and Mental Health
Second to its role in childbirth and lactation, oxytocin is perhaps best understood for its importance to social behavior. There is increasing evidence that oxytocin dysfunction plays a part in many mental health disorders, including schizophrenia, autism, anxiety disorders, mood disorders, and personality disorders, although what part exactly is far from clear. At this point, oxytocin looks fairly promising as a treatment for autism spectrum disorders. The evidence for its use with schizophrenia, anxiety disorders, and PTSD is thin but also promising.27,28 On the other hand, the evidence for using oxytocin with patients with mood or personality disorders is contradictory, sometimes showing more negative than positive effects.
A number of studies support the potential of exogenous oxytocin to improve social functioning in autism. Most studies are small and have shown some improvement on measures of social function, social recognition, empathy, social recognition, repetitive behaviors, and anxiety.29 In at least one study, 10 out of 15 children had overall improvement at week 12. Seven of those children maintained their improvement for 3 months after stopping oxytocin.30 In another study, 11 men and 2 women with Asperger syndrome, ranging in age from 17 to 39, showed improvement in social cooperation and time spent gazing at the eyes after a single 24 IU dose of intranasal oxytocin.31 Oxytocin appears to be safe, with no adverse effects being reported at any dose given. Still, a February, 2015 article in Science, “Can Oxytocin Treat Autism?” cautions that “there are insufficient data for physicians to prescribe oxytocin to patients or for parents to seek oxytocin for their autistic child.”32
Case Report
A physician client of Meridian Valley Lab called for a clinical consult on Patient B with symptoms of extreme mental stress, anxiety, and social isolation. The patient’s 24-urine oxytocin levels were low out of range. The physician decided on a trial of oxytocin. In a follow-up consultation, the physician reported that the patient had had an apparent positive response to oxytocin therapy, feeling more happiness and joy than she had for several months. It was unclear whether the response was entirely due to oxytocin, as it also coincided with her going on an extended vacation. The improvement in feelings of anxiousness and stress began shortly after starting on oxytocin and before leaving on vacation. On the way back from vacation, the patient lost her oxytocin. She subsequently noticed an increase in anxiety and feeling “disconnected.”
Case Report
A physician client of Meridian Valley Lab called for a clinical consult on Patient C with symptoms of social isolation and lack of trust and a history of sexual abuse. The patient’s 24-urine oxytocin levels were in the low-normal range. A trial of oxytocin was decided on by the physician. In a follow-up consultation, the physician reported that the patient had had a “night and day” response to oxytocin. The patient was feeling so much better that her neighbor made an appointment to see the physician because she wanted “whatever [Patient C] got.”
Oxytocin and the Heart
Oxytocin receptors are expressed in all chambers of the heart as well as in the cardiac vasculature. Oxytocin administered to heart tissue in vitro has been shown to stimulate the release of atrial natriuretic peptide and nitric oxide. Oxytocin is present in abundance in the fetal heart tissue and can trigger the development of cardiomyocytes from murine (mouse and rat) embryonic stem cells. An extended form of oxytocin, Oxytocin-Gly-Lys-Arg, has been described as “the most potent inducer of cardiac differentiation.”33 The actions of oxytocin on the cardiovascular system include reduction of blood pressure, decreasing heart rate and force of contraction, and vasodilation.33,34
Multiple animal studies have shown cardiovascular benefits from oxytocin treatment. One such study was done with diabetic mice, which were treated with either saline or oxytocin for 12 weeks starting at 4 weeks of age. Saline-treated mice developed cardiac hypertrophy, fibrosis, death of cardiac myocytes, and systolic and diastolic abnormalities. Oxytocin prevented all these effects as well as reducing inflammation and oxidative stress on the heart.35 Other animal studies have demonstrated that oxytocin can reduce ischemia-reperfusion injury. In one study, perfusion with oxytocin prior to ischemia resulted in an infarct size 66% smaller than in the control group.36,37
In a study done with 28 early postpartum (human) mothers, oxytocin levels were measured before and during two stressful situations. In the first, each mother was asked to give a 3-minute speech on a recent situation in which she was angry or stressed. In the second task, the mothers were asked to hold a plastic bag of ice and water on their foreheads for 2.5 minutes, a task which elicits vasoconstriction and pain. Those mothers with higher oxytocin levels had a smaller increase in cardiovascular stress in response to both tasks, as measured by vasodilation, stroke volume, and heart rate.38
It is well established that oxytocin levels rise with sexual activity, especially with orgasm. Perhaps the cardioprotective effects of oxytocin are the underlying reason for the finding of a 2010 epidemiological study which reported that men who have sex twice or more a week are at lower risk of cardiovascular disease than men who had sex once a month or less.39
Oxytocin and Sexual Function
One of the cardiovascular effects of oxytocin, as mentioned previously, is that it stimulates the release of nitric oxide. The resulting vasodilation can have a salutary effect on erectile function, and improved erectile function is a known effect of oxytocin. It is interesting to note that a 2007 study demonstrated that Sildenafil (a.k.a. Viagra) stimulates the release of oxytocin from hypothalamic neurons.40 No reports have been found of oxytocin causing erections lasting more than 4 hours.
Two published case reports suggest that oxytocin is certainly worth consideration for male sexual dysfunction. In the first, a 32-year old married father of three with social inhibition and probable Asperger syndrome was treated with 20 IU of intranasal oxytocin twice daily. Although the treatment did not greatly improve his social phobia, he did experience noticeable changes in his sexual relationship with his wife, which she confirmed. “The patient reported that while using [oxytocin], he was more spontaneously affectionate with his wife, which led to increased sexual intimacy. Importantly, these effects were present when using the spray, disappeared on discontinuation, and reappeared each of the several times he restarted the medication [after refilling his prescription].” His sexual function, as measured on the Arizona Sexual Experience Scale improved by 46%. Libido moved from “very weak” to “somewhat strong”; sexual arousal from “somewhat difficult” to “somewhat easy”; erectile function from “ somewhat difficult” to “very easily”; and satisfaction with orgasm from “somewhat satisfying” to “very satisfying.” The patient continued to use the oxytocin spray daily with no problems and continued benefits.41
In the second case, an 82-year-old man had been unable to consistently achieve orgasm since age 78, although he was still sexually active with his wife. Several treatments had been tried with only temporary positive success. After determining that there were no pharmaceutical or psychological reasons inhibiting orgasm, the patient was given oxytocin nasal spray (20–24 IU) and instructed to use it during intercourse at the point when orgasm was desired. This resulted in the man being able to achieve orgasm multiple times per week. At the time the report was published, the patient had had continuing success over a period of 8 months.42
In women and men, oxytocin has been shown to increase the intensity of orgasm and contentment after intercourse, with the effects being more pronounced in men. Women felt more relaxed after intercourse and were more able to share sexual desires and to empathize with their partners.43
A small trial of 20 postmenopausal women investigated the use of a topical oxytocin gel to treat vaginal atrophy. The women were at least 2 years postmenopause and had significant symptoms of dryness, pain, itching, and bleeding during intercourse. Seven days of oxytocin gel normalized vaginal tissue, as confirmed by colposcopy and biopsy, in 7 of 10 participants in the oxytocin group. No such improvement was seen in the placebo group. Seven participants in the oxytocin group and 4 in the placebo group also reported a relief of symptoms. It is noteworthy that there was no difference in circulating levels of oxytocin or estradiol after treatment.44 This suggests that topical oxytocin could be of great benefit to those women with vaginal atrophy for whom topical estrogen is not advised or desired.
In Conclusion
The research literature on oxytocin is vast, and only touched upon in this article. Two other areas in which oxytocin may hold great promise are hinted at in the following article titles:
“Oxytocin Is an Age-Specific Circulating Hormone That Is Necessary for Muscle Maintenance and Regeneration.”45
“Effect of Oxytocin Administration on Nerve Recovery in the Rat Sciatic Nerve Damage Model.”46
Oxytocin has a very short half-life, only 2 to 3 minutes in plasma, although its effects last considerably longer. This short half-life may undermine the meaningfulness of serum testing, especially given a normal peak at midday. As with many hormones, a 24-hour urine collection may afford the best assessment of a patient’s oxytocin levels.
Although there is much research into oxytocin biochemistry, oxytocin receptor genetic polymorphism, and a multitude of animal studies exploring clinical effects of oxytocin, clinical utility in human patients is in most cases considered unproven. However, given the potentially large benefits and the lack of adverse effects noted in clinical trials to date, it may be worth considering making use of the love hormone.
Notes
1. Wilcox C. Muscles love oxytocin: so-called “hug hormone” important in muscle regeneration [blog post]. Discover. 27 June 2014. Epub 12 Nov. 2015. http://blogs.discovermagazine.com/science-sushi/2014/06/27/new-study-shows-muscles-love-oxytocin/#.VkU4FlzGY20. Retrieved September 11, 2015.
2. Dye L. A love drug? Oxytocin, the “cuddle chemical” to scientists, makes mothers more kind, say researchers [online article]. ABC News. November 13, 2015. http://abcnews.go.com/Technology/love-drug-oxytocin-cuddle-chemical-scientists-makes-mothers/story?id=15330910.
3. Gupta S. The hormones of happiness and how to increase them [online article]. November 9, 2015. http://www.indiatimes.com/health/healthyliving/the-hormones-of-happiness-and-how-to-increase-them-242282.html.
4. Flechas J. Alternative treatment of fibromyalgia using the oxytocin-hormonal-nutrient protocol to increase nitric oxide. Original Internist. September 2007:114–144.
5. Yang H-P, Wang L, Han L, Wang SC. Nonsocial functions of hypothalamic oxytocin. ISRN Neurosci. 2013:1–13. http://doi.org/10.1155/2013/179272.
6. Gimpl G, Fahrenholz F. The oxytocin receptor system: structure, function, and regulation. Physiol Rev. 2001;81(2):629–683. Available at http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/11274341.
7. Moreno-López Y, Martínez-Lorenzana G, Condés-Lara M, Rojas-Piloni G. Identification of oxytocin receptor in the dorsal horn and nociceptive dorsal root ganglion neurons. Neuropeptides. 2013;47:117–123. http://doi.org/10.1016/j.npep.2012.09.008.
8. AAPM facts and figures on pain [Web page]. 2015. http://www.painmed.org/patientcenter/facts_on_pain.aspx. Accessed November 9, 2015.
9. Goodin BR, Ness TJ, Robbins MT. Oxytocin – a multifunctional analgesic for chronic deep tissue pain. Curr Pharm Des. 2015;21(7):906–913. Available at http://www.pubmedcentral.nih.gov/articlerender.fcgi?artid=4276444&tool=pmcentrez&rendertype=abstract.
10. Wang Y-L, Yuan Y, Yang J, et al. The interaction between the oxytocin and pain modulation in headache patients. Neuropeptides. 2013;47(2):93–97. Available at http://doi.org/10.1016/j.npep.2012.12.003
11. Less intractable pain and opioid consumption follow administration of pregnancy hormones, preliminary study shows [news release]. American Academy of Pain Medicine. Available at http://www.painmed.org/2014press/files/less-intractable-pain-and-opioid-consumption-follow-administration-of-pregnancy-hormones.pdf.
12. Kovács GL, Sarnyai Z, Szabó G. Oxytocin and addiction: a review. Psychoneuroendocrinology. 1998;23(8):945–962. Available at http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/9924746.
13. McGregor IS, Bowen MT. Breaking the loop: oxytocin as a potential treatment for drug addiction. Horm Behav. 2012;61(3):331–339. http://doi.org/10.1016/j.yhbeh.2011.12.001 .
14. Sarnyai Z. Oxytocin as a potential mediator and modulator of drug addiction. Addict Biol. 2011;16(2):199–201. http://doi.org/10.1111/j.1369-1600.2011.00332.x .
15. Crujeiras AB, Carreira MC, Cabia B, Andrade S, Amil M, Casanueva FF. Leptin resistance in obesity: an epigenetic landscape. Life Sci. 140:57–63. http://doi.org/10.1016/j.lfs.2015.05.003 .
16. Altirriba J, Poher A-L, Rohner-Jeanrenaud F. Chronic oxytocin administration as a treatment against impaired leptin signaling or leptin resistance in obesity. Front Endocrinol. 2015;6:119. http://doi.org/10.3389/fendo.2015.00119 .
17. Ott V, Finlayson G, Lehnert H, et al. Oxytocin reduces reward-driven food intake in humans. Diabetes. 2013;62(10):3418–3425. http://doi.org/10.2337/db13-0663 .
18. Zhang H, Wu C, Chen Q, et al. Treatment of obesity and diabetes using oxytocin or analogs in patients and mouse models. PloS One. 2013;8(5):e61477. http://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0061477 .
19. Blevins JE, Ho JM. Role of oxytocin signaling in the regulation of body weight. Rev Endocr Metab Disord. 2013;14(4):311–329. http://doi.org/10.1007/s11154-013-9260-x .
20. Elabd S, Sabry I. Two birds with one stone: possible dual-role of oxytocin in the treatment of diabetes and osteoporosis. Front Endocrinol. 2015;6:121. http://doi.org/10.3389/fendo.2015.00121 .
21. Elabd C, Basillais A, Beaupied H, et al. Oxytocin controls differentiation of human mesenchymal stem cells and reverses osteoporosis. Stem Cells. 2008;26(9);2399–2407. http://doi.org/10.1634/stemcells.2008-0127 .
22. Tamma R, Colaianni G, Zhu L, et al. Oxytocin is an anabolic bone hormone. Proc Natl Acad Sci U S A. 2009;106(17):7149–7154. http://doi.org/10.1073/pnas.0901890106 .
23. Beranger GE, Pisani DF, Castel J, et al. Oxytocin reverses ovariectomy-induced osteopenia and body fat gain. Endocrinology. 2014;155(4):1340–1352. http://doi.org/10.1210/en.2013-1688 .
24. Breuil V, Amri E-Z, Panaia-Ferrari P, et al. Oxytocin and bone remodelling: relationships with neuropituitary hormones, bone status and body composition. Joint Bone Spine. 2011;78(6):611–615. http://doi.org/10.1016/j.jbspin.2011.02.002 .
25. Lawson EA, Ackerman KE, Estella NM, et al. Nocturnal oxytocin secretion is lower in amenorrheic athletes than nonathletes and associated with bone microarchitecture and finite element analysis parameters. Eur J Endocrinol. 2013;168(3):457–464. http://doi.org/10.1530/EJE-12-0869 .
26. Lawson EA, Donoho DA, Blum JI, et al. Decreased nocturnal oxytocin levels in anorexia nervosa are associated with low bone mineral density and fat mass. J Clin Psychiatry. 2011;72(11):1546–1551. http://doi.org/10.4088/JCP.10m06617 .
27. Rich ME, Caldwell HK. A role for oxytocin in the etiology and treatment of schizophrenia. Front Endocrinol. 2015;6:90. http://doi.org/10.3389/fendo.2015.00090 .
28. Neumann ID, Slattery DA. Oxytocin in general anxiety and social fear: A translational approach. Biol Psychiatry. 2015. http://doi.org/10.1016/j.biopsych.2015.06.004 .
29. Anagnostou E, Soorya L, Chaplin W, et al. Intranasal oxytocin versus placebo in the treatment of adults with autism spectrum disorders: a randomized controlled trial. Mol Autism. 2012;3(1):16. http://doi.org/10.1186/2040-2392-3-16 .
30. Anagnostou E, Soorya L, Brian J, et al. Intranasal oxytocin in the treatment of autism spectrum disorders: A review of literature and early safety and efficacy data in youth. Brain Res. 2014;1580:188–198. http://doi.org/10.1016/j.brainres.2014.01.049 .
31. Andari E, Duhamel J-R, Zalla T, Herbrecht E, Leboyer M, Sirigu A. Promoting social behavior with oxytocin in high-functioning autism spectrum disorders. Proc Natl Acad Sci U S A. 2010;107(9):4389–4394. http://doi.org/10.1073/pnas.0910249107 .
32. Young LJ, Barrett CE. Can oxytocin treat autism? Science. 2015;347(6224):825–826. http://doi.org/10.1126/science.aaa8120 .
33. Gutkowska J, Jankowski M. Oxytocin revisited: it is also a cardiovascular hormone. J Am Soc Hypertens. 2010;2(5):318–325. http://doi.org/10.1016/j.jash.2008.04.004 .
34. Danalache BA, Gutkowska J, Slusarz MJ, Berezowska I, Jankowski M Oxytocin-Gly-Lys-Arg: a novel cardiomyogenic peptide. PloS One. 2010;5(10):e13643. http://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0013643 .
35. Plante E, Menaouar A, Danalache BA, et al. Oxytocin treatment prevents the cardiomyopathy observed in obese diabetic male db/db mice. Endocrinology. 2015;156(4):1416–1428. http://doi.org/10.1210/en.2014-1718 .
36. Ondrejcakova M, Ravingerova T, Bakos J, Pancza D, Jezova D. Oxytocin exerts protective effects on in vitro myocardial injury induced by ischemia and reperfusion. Can J Physiol Pharmacol. 2009;87(2):137–142. http://doi.org/10.1139/Y08-108 .
37. Moghimian M, Faghihi M, Karimian SM, Imani A. The effect of acute stress exposure on ischemia and reperfusion injury in rat heart: role of oxytocin. Stress. 2012;15(4):385–392. http://doi.org/10.3109/10253890.2011.630436 .
38. Grewen KM, Light KC. Plasma oxytocin is related to lower cardiovascular and sympathetic reactivity to stress. Biol Psychol. 2011;87(3):340–349. http://doi.org/10.1016/j.biopsycho.2011.04.003 .
39. Hall SA, Shackelton R, Rosen RC, Araujo AB. Sexual activity, erectile dysfunction, and incident cardiovascular events. Am J Cardiol. 2010;105(2):192–197. http://doi.org/10.1016/j.amjcard.2009.08.671 .
40. Zhang Z, Klyachko V, Jackson MB. Blockade of phosphodiesterase Type 5 enhances rat neurohypophysial excitability and electrically evoked oxytocin release. J Physiol. 2007;584(Pt 1):137–147. http://doi.org/10.1113/jphysiol.2007.139303 .
41. MacDonald K, Feifel D. Dramatic improvement in sexual function induced by intranasal oxytocin. J Sex Med. 2012;9(5):1407–1410. http://doi.org/10.1111/j.1743-6109.2012.02703.x .
42. Ishak WW, Berman DS, Peters A. Male anorgasmia treated with oxytocin. J Sex Med. 2008;5(4):1022–1024. http://doi.org/10.1111/j.1743-6109.2007.00691.x .
43. Behnia B, Heinrichs M, Bergmann W, et al. Differential effects of intranasal oxytocin on sexual experiences and partner interactions in couples. Horm Behav. 2014;65(3):308–318. http://doi.org/10.1016/j.yhbeh.2014.01.009 .
44. Jonasson AF, Edwall L, Uvnäs-Moberg K. Topical oxytocin reverses vaginal atrophy in postmenopausal women: a double-blind randomized pilot study. Menopause Int. 2011;17(4):120–125. http://doi.org/10.1258/mi.2011.011030 .
45. Elabd C, Cousin W, Upadhyayula P, et al. Oxytocin is an age-specific circulating hormone that is necessary for muscle maintenance and regeneration. Nat Commun. 2014;5(1762):4082. http://doi.org/10.1038/ncomms5082 .
46. Gümüs B, Kuyucu E, Erbas O, Kazimoglu C, Oltulu F, Bora OA. Effect of oxytocin administration on nerve recovery in the rat sciatic nerve damage model. J Orthopaed Surg Res. 2015;l10(1):161. http://doi.org/10.1186/s13018-015-0301-x .
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Dr. Pushpa Larsen graduated from Bastyr University in naturopathic medicine; naturopathic midwifery; and spirituality, health, and medicine. She has worked as a research clinician for the Bastyr University Research Institute and as affiliate clinical faculty for Bastyr University, training students in her clinic. Dr. Larsen is a past contributor to the Townsend Letter as well as other publications for practitioners and patients, and presents webinars on many topics in laboratory medicine. She practiced in Seattle for 10 years before joining Meridian Valley Lab as a consulting physician six years ago. She consults with hundreds of doctors every year on the use and interpretation of blood viscosity tests, 24-hour urine hormone profiles, and other tests offered by Meridian Valley Lab.
plarsen@meridianvalleylab.com.
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